Reference to Precious Stones in Literature

Golding, in his translation of Ovid's "Metamorphoses" (1575), says:-

"The princely pallace of the sun stood gorgeous to behold,

On stately pillars builded high of yellow burnished gold,

Beset with sparkling carbuncles that like to fire doth shine,

The roofe was framed curiously of yuorie pure and fine."

In Googe's translation of Palingenius (1565) a city of the moon is thus described:-

"The loftie walles of diamonde strong,

Were raysed high and framde,

The bulwarks built of carbuncle,

That all as fyer yflamd."

Concerning Seilan, or Ceylon, Marco Polo tells us "of the most precious article that exists in the world. You must know that rubies are found in this island, and in no other country in the world but this. They find there also sapphires and topazes and amethysts, and many other stones of price. And the king of this island possesses a ruby which is the finest and biggest in the world. I will tell you what it is like. It is about a palm in length, and as thick as a man's arm; to look at it is the most resplendent object upon earth; it is quite free from flaw, and is as red as fire. Its value is so great that a price for it in money could hardly be named at all. You must know that the Great Kaan sent an embassy and begged the king as a favour greatly desired by him to sell him this ruby, offering to give for it the ransom of a city, or in fact what the king would. But the king replied that on no account whatever would he sell it, for it had come to him from his ancestors."

Colonel Yule in "The Book of Ser Marco Polo" observes, "there seems to have been always afloat among Indian travellers, at least from the time of Cosmas (sixth century), some wonderful story about the ruby or rubies of the King of Ceylon. With Cosmas, and with the Chinese Hwen Thsang, in the following century, this precious object is fixed at the top of a pagoda, a hyacinth, they say, of great size and brilliant ruddy colour, as big as a great pine-cone; and when 'tis seen from a distance flashing, especially if the sun's rays strike upon it, it is a glorious and incomparable spectacle." Our author's contemporary, Hayton, had heard of the great ruby: "The king of the island of Celan hath the largest and finest ruby in existence. When his coronation takes place this ruby is placed in his hand, and he goes round the city on horseback holding it in his hand, and thenceforth all recognize and obey him as their king." Odoric, too, speaks of the great ruby and the Kaan's endeavours to get it, though by some bungle the circumstance is referred to Nicoveran, instead of Ceylon. Ibn Batuta saw in the possession of Arya Chakravarti, a Tamul chief ruling at Patlam, a ruby bowl as big as the palm of one's hand. Friar Jordanus speaks of two great rubies belonging to the King of Sylen, each so large that when grasped in the hand it projected a finger's breadth at either side. The fame, at least, of these survived to the sixteenth century, for Andrea Corsali (1515) says: "They tell that the king of this island possesses two rubies of colours so brilliant and vivid that they look like a flame of fire."

Sir E. Tennent, on this subject, quotes from a Chinese work a statement that early in the fourteenth century the Emperor sent an officer to Ceylon to purchase a carbuncle of unusual lustre. This was fitted as a ball to the Emperor's cap; it was upwards of an ounce in weight, and cost one hundred thousand strings of cash. Every time a grand levee was held at night the red lustre filled the palace, and hence it was designated "the Red Palace Illuminator."

Mandeville, in his "Travels," says, "the Emperor hath in his chamber a pillar of gold, in which is a ruby and carbuncle a foot long, which lighteth all his chambers by night."

Lydgate calls St. Edmund, "The precious charboncle of martir's alle."

In the adventures of the "Golden Fleece" the hall of King Priam is described as illuminated at night by a prodigious carbuncle, placed among sapphires, rubies, and pearls on the crown of a golden statue of Jupiter, fifteen cubits high.

In Hawe's "Pastyme of Pleasure" (1517), "Graunde Amoure" enters a hall in the Tower of Chastity, with a golden roof, in the midst of which was a carbuncle of enormous size which lighted the room.

Chaucer, in the "Romaunt of the Rose," describes Richesse as crowned with the costliest gems:-

"But all before full subtilty

A fine carboncle set sawe I.

The stone so cleare was and bright,

That al so sone as it was night,

Men mightin se to go for nede

A mile or two in length and brede,

Such light ysprange out of that stone

That Richesse wonder bright yshone,

Both on her hedde and all her face,

And eke about her all the place."

In the Romance, or Lay of "Syr Launfal," a pavilion is described, having on the top an eagle:-

"Of bournede golde, ryche and good,

I florysched with ryche amalle, (enamel)

Hys eyn were carbonkeles brygt

As the mone they shon anygt,

That spreteth out ovyre alle:

Alysaundre the conqueroure,

Ne Kyng Artoure yn hys most honour

Ne hadde noon swyche juelle."

Shakspeare alludes to the carbuncle in "Titus Andronicus":--

"Upon his bloody finger he doth wear,

A precious ring that lightens all the hole,

Which, like a taper in some monument,

Doth shine upon the dead man's earthy cheeks,

And shews the rugged entrails of the pit."

Milton describes the cobra:--

"his head

Crested aloof, and carbuncle his eyes."

The supernatural lustre of the carbuncle has an Arabian source. In the "History of the Seven Champions of Christendom"--containing some of the most capital fictions of the old Arabian romance--in the story of the "Enchanted Fountain," the knights entering a dark hall, "took off their gauntlets from their left hands, whereon they wore marvellous great and fine diamonds, that gave so much light, that they might plainly see all things that were in the hall, the which was very great and wide."

In the "Pyramidographia" of Mr. Greaves it is mentioned (on the authority of an Arabian author) that the Pyramid of Egypt, attributed to Cheops, was entered, about ten centuries ago, by Almamon, the renowned Caliph of Babylon. It is added that the explorer found in it, towards the top, a chamber was a hollow stone, in which there was a statue like a man, and within it the body of a man, upon which was a breastplate of gold set with jewels. Upon this breastplate there was a sword of inestimable value, and at his head a carbuncle of the bigness of an egg, shining like the light of the day.

Chalkhill, in his "Thealma and Clearchus," describing the cell of the witch Orandra, mentions the door as "interwove with ivys flattering twines":--

"Through which the carbuncle and diamond shines;

Not set by Art, but there by Nature sown

At the world's birth, so star-like bright they shone,

They served instead of tapers to give light

To the dark entry."

John Norton, an alchemist in the reign of Edward IV., wrote a poem called the "Ordinal," or a manual of the chemical art. One of his projects was a bridge of gold over the Thames, crowned with pinnacles of gold, which, being studded with carbuncles, would diffuse a blaze of light in the dark:--

"Wherefore he would set up in height,

That bridge for a wonderfull sight,

With pinnacles guilt, shininge as goulde,

A glorious thing for men to beholde."

The extravagances of description in which precious stones are specially noted by the old writers, are singularly wild and imaginative; many such instances are in Guido de Colonna, who lived when this mode of fabling was at its height, and of whose romance, "Historia Trojana," Lydgate's "Troy Book" (completed in 1420, and written by command of Henry V.), in a translation, or paraphrase, the city of Troy is curiously described. It was three days' journey in length and breadth; the walls two hundred cubits high, of marble and alabaster, and machicolated. At every angle was a crown of gold, set with the richest gems. There were great gems in the towers. On each turret were figures of savage and monstrous beasts in brass. The gates were of brass, and a portcullis to each. The houses were all uniform, and of marble, sixty cubits high. Of Priam's palace--

"Al the wyndowes and eche fenestrall

Wrought were with beryll, and of clere crystal."

With regard to the last circumstance, according to Leland, part of the windows of Sudeley Castle, in Gloucestershire, "were glazed with berall," though this has been doubted."

Lydgate describes Hector as being buried in the principal church at Troy (!), near the high altar, within a magnificent oratory erected for that purpose, exactly resembling the Gothic shrine of our cathedrals, yet charged with many romantic decorations:--

"Al the rofe and closure envyrowne,

Was of fyne golde, plated up and downe,

With knottes grave, wonder curyous,

Fret ful of stonys riche and precious."

Chaucer, in his "House of Fame," describes the floor and roof of the hall, as covered with thick plates of gold, studded with the costliest gems.

In Spenser's "Faerie Queene," Mammon leads Sir Guyon into the subterranean realm:--

"He brought him in. The rowme was large and wyde,

As if some gyeld or solemne temple weare:

Many great golden pillours did upbeare

The massy roofe, and riches huge sustayne;

And every pillour decked was full deare

With crownes and diademes, and titles vaine,

Which mortall princess wore whiles they on earth did rayne."

Among the marvelous stories related of Presbyter Joannes, or Prester John, the mythical Indian king, is that relating to a letter which he is said by Albericus to have sent, in the twelfth century, to Manuel, of Constantinople, and Frederick, the Roman Emperor, besides others, the wonderful contents of which are alluded to in chronicles and romances, and which, indeed, were turned into rhyme and sung all over Europe by minstrels and trouveres.

The following is a description of the magnificent abode of this fabulous monarch:--"The palace in which our Supereminency resides, is built after the pattern of the castle built by the Apostle Thomas for the Indian King Gundoforus. Ceilings, joists, and architrave, are of sethym wood; the roof of ebony, which can never catch fire. Over the gable of the palace are, at the extremities, two golden apples, in which are two carbuncles, so that the gold may shine by day, and the carbuncles by night. The greater gates of the palace are of sardius, with the horn of the horned snake inwrought, so that no one can bring poison within. The other portals are of ebony. The windows are of crystal; the tables are partly of gold, partly of amethyst, and the columns supporting the tables are partly of ivory, partly of amethyst. The court in which we watch the jousting is floored with onyx, in order to increase the courage of the combatants. In the palace, at night, nothing is burned for light but wicks supplied with balsam....Before our palace stands a mirror, the ascent to which consist of five-and-twenty steps of porphyry and serpentine." After a description of the gems adorning this mirror, which is guarded night and day by three thousand armed men, he explains its use:--"We look therein, and behold all that is taking place in every province and region subject to our sceptre."

In the adventures of the "Golden Fleece," the palace of Priam (to which I have alluded) "seemed to be founded by Fayrie, or enchantment, and was paved with crystal, built with diamonds, sapphires, and emeralds, and supported by ivory pillars, surmounted by golden images."

In a description of an enchanted city in the romance of Bevis of Hampton, we find:--

"At the brygge ende stondeth a towre,

Peynted wyth golde and asewre.

The toret was of precyus stonys

Ryche and gode for the nonys."

In one of the British Lais, "La Lai du Corne," a story of King Arthur's Court, and which probably existed before the year 1300, a magical horn is described, richly garnished with precious stones, a fairy work, which is brought by a beautiful boy, riding on a fleet courser to a sumptuous feast held at Carleon by King Arthur, in order to try the fidelity of the knights and ladies, who are in number sixty thousand. Those who are false, in drinking from this horn, spill their wine. The horn is described as having four bandages of gold, made of ivory engraved with trifoire (a rich, ornamented edge or border). Many precious stones were set in the gold--beryls, sardonyces, and rich chalcedonies, etc.

In the chapter on "Superstitions," I have alluded to the wonderful virtues ascribed to serpent-stones. In the wide region of romance there are numerous instances in which these animals take a conspicuous part, whether for good or for evil. It is in the former sense that the following story is given in the "Gesta Romanorum" (chap. cxix.). A king had an oppressive seneschal, who, passing through a forest, fell into a deep pit, in which were a lion, an ape, and a serpent. A poor man who gathered sticks in the forest, hearing his cries, drew him up, with the animals. The seneschal returned home, promising to reward the poor man, but neglected to do so on his application, and even had him cruelly beaten. As a recompence, the lion drove ten asses, laden with gold, to the poor man's house; the serpent brought him a precious stone of three colours; and the ape laid him heaps of wood in the forest. The poor man, in consequence of the serpent's precious stone, which he sold, arrived at the dignity of knighthood, and acquired ample possessions. He afterwards found that the precious stone had been placed in his chest, and presented it to the king, who, having heard the whole story, ordered the seneschal to be put to death for his ingratitude, and promoted the poor man to his office.

In the romance by Lodge, "A Margarite of America" (printed in 1596), it states, that in the chamber of Margarite were seen "all the chaste ladies of the world, inchased out of silver, looking through fair mirrours of chrysolites, carbuncles, sapphires, and greene emeraults."

Golden vines, with grapes of precious stones, are not unfrequently mentioned by old writers. Sir John Mandeville, the unveracious traveller, describes a vine "that hath many bunches of grapes, some white, all the red being of rubies." In Hawe's "Pleasure of Pastyme," it is said that "Grande Amoure" enters a hall of jasper, its windows crystal, and its roof overspread with a golden vine, whose grapes are represented by rubies.

Such stories recall the marvels of the "Arabian Nights," and Aladdin's visit to the enchanted garden, where jewels of inestimable value and lustre grew on the trees instead of fruit.

In the fabulous "Life of Alexander the Great," printed towards the close of the fifteenth century, the hero, after having jousted with Porus for his kingdom, and overthrown him, found in the palace of the vanquished monarch immense treasures, and amongst others, a vine of which the branches were gold, the leaves emeralds, and the fruit other precious stones--a fiction which seems to have been suggested by the golden vine which Pompey carried away with him from Jerusalem.

Lydgate, in his "Troy Book," mentions a tree made by magic in the court of King Priam's palace, the trunk of which was twelve cubits high; the branches, which overshadowed distant plains, were alternately of solid gold and silver, blossoming with gems of various hues, which were renewed every day.

Spenser describes a wondrous vine in Mammon's subterranean isle:--

"So fashioned a porch with rare device,

Archt over head with an embracing vine,

Whose bounches hanging downe, seem'd to entice

All passers-by to taste their luscious wine.

And did themselves into their hands incline,

As freely offering to be gathered;

Some deep empurpled as the hyacine,

Some as the rubine, laughing sweetely red;

Some like fair emeraudes, not yet well ripened"....

In Herodotus (book vii. chap. 26, 29), we read of the golden vine given by Pythius the Lydian to Darius, which was said to have been the work of Theodore the Samian. The bunches of grapes were imitated by means of the most costly precious stones. It overshadowed the couch on which the king slept.

Chalkhill, in his "Thealma and Clearchus," describes the cell of the witch Orandra:--

"The walls were gilt and set

With precious stones, and all the roof was fret

With a gold vine, whose struggling branches spread

All o'er the arch; the swelling grapes were red;

This, Art had made of rubies, cluster'd so,

To the quick'st eye they more than seem'd to grow."

In the "Arraignement of Paris," a pastoral (1584), the three rival deities disclose their pretensions and promises to the shepherd, Paris. Juno says:--

"For thy meede, sythe I am Queen of Riches,

Shepherde, I will reward thee with greate monarchies,

Empires and kingdomes, heapes of massie golde,

Scepters and diadems, curious to beholde,

Riche robes of sumptuousness, workmanship, and cost,

And thousand things whereof I make no boast...

Shepherde, lo, this tree of golde I will bestowe on thee."

(Hereuppon did rise a tree of gold, laden with diadems and crownes of golde.)

"The ground whereon it growes, the grasse, the roote of golde,

The body and the barke of golde, all glistnynge to beholde;

The leaves of burnisht golde, the fruites that thereon growe.

Are diadems set with pearle in golde in glorious glistringe showe,

And if this tree of golde in lue may not suffice,

Require a grove of golden trees, so Juno bears the prize."

(The tree sinketh.)

A wonderful tree is mentioned by Abulfeda (A.D. 917), among the magnificent decorations of the palace of the Caliph Almamon. It was of gold and silver, spreading into eighteen large branches, on which, and on the lesser boughs, sat a variety of birds, made of the same precious metals, as well as the leaves of the tree. While the machinery effected spontaneous motions, the several birds warbled their natural harmony.

In "Amadis of Gaul" is a pretty story in connection with precious stones. "King Lisurate was so content with the tidings of Amadis and Galavor which the dwarf had brought him, that he determined to hold the most honourable court that had ever been held in Great Britain. Presently three knights came through the gate, two of them armed at all points, the third, unarmed, of good stature and well proportioned, his hair grey, but of a green and comely old age. He held in his hand a coffer, and having enquired which was the king, dismounted from his palfrey, and kneeled before him, saying, 'God preserve you, sir, for you have made the noblest promise that ever king did, if you hold it.' 'What promise was that?' quoth Lisuarte. 'To maintain chivalry in its highest honour and degree. Few princes now-a-days labour to that end, therefore are you to be commended.' 'Certes, knight, that promise shall hold while I live.' 'God grant you life to complete it,' quoth the old man, 'and because you have summoned a great court to London, I have brought something here which becomes such a person for such an occasion.' Then he opened the coffer and took out a crown of gold, so curiously wrought, and set with pearls and gems that all were amazed at its beauty, and it well appeared it was only fit for the brow of some mighty lord.

"'Is it not a work which the most cunning artists would wonder at?' said the old knight. Lisuarte answered, 'In truth it is so.' 'Yet,' replied the knight 'it hath a virtue more to be esteemed than its rare work and richness. Whatever king hath it on his head shall always increase his honour; this it did for him for whom it was made till the day of his death; since then no king hath worn it; I will give it to you, sir, for one boon.'

"'You, also, lady,' said the knight, 'should purchase a rich mantle that I bring,' and he took from the coffer the richest and most beautiful mantle that ever was seen, for besides the pearls and precious stones with which it was beautified, there were figured on it all the birds and beasts in nature, so that it looked like a miracle.

"'On my faith,' said the queen, 'this cloth could only have been made by that lord that can do everything.' 'It is the work of man,' replied the old knight, 'but rarely will one be found to make its fellow. It should belong to wife rather than maiden, for all that wear it shall never have dispute with her husband.' Britna answered, 'If that be true it is above all price. I will give for it whatsoever you ask.' And Lisuarte bade him demand what he would for the mantle and crown."

In the "Cento Novelle Antiche," a composition prior to that of the "Decameron" of Boccaccio, is the story of a Greek king who is informed by one of the most learned of his subjects, whom he had imprisoned, that there was a worm in one of his most precious jewels. The gem being dashed to pieces the animal is found, and the captive gratified with a whole loaf each day. At length the king asks him, "Whose son am I?" He is answered that he sprang from a baker; a piece of unexpected intelligence, which is confirmed by the queen-mother on her being sent for, and compelled by threats to confess the truth. Being finally asked how he came to know all these things, the wise man replies that the heat of the gem had suggested his answer, and he had discovered his majesty's pedigree from the gifts of bread he had received for this and other answers.

A similar story to this is in the "Arabian Tales," where three sharpers introduce themselves to a sultan, the first as a skilful lapidary, to whom a precious stone is shown, in which he declares there is a flaw; the jewel being cut in two a blemish is discovered.

Another story is taken from the "Gesta Romanorum," where the Emperor Leo commands three statues of females to be made; one has a golden ring on her finger, pointing forwards; another, the ornament of a golden beard; the third, a golden cloak and purple tunic: whoever should steal any of these ornaments was to be punished by an ignominious death. (See "Gower's Confessio Amantis," lib. v.)

Among the romantic episodes in connection with precious stones, which abound in the pages of old travellers, none can exceed in interest those recorded by the famous Messer Marco Polo (died 1323), who spent six-and-twenty years in exploring the Asiatic continent; first of Europeans, he penetrated into the Celestial Empire, into India, across the Ganges, and into the great Indian Archipelago--regions previously unknown to Europe, and concealed in the deep shadows of ignorance, superstition, and fable. What he saw, he described with simplicity and exactness. Later research has but confirmed his accuracy, and in so doing justified his fame. "He was the creator," says Malte-Brun, "of the modern geography of Asia; he was the Humboldt of the thirteenth century; and his travels will always remain--monumentum aere perennius--an imperishable monument of his genius, truthfulness, and courage."

Many of the strange stories related by Marco Polo have been considered extravagant or fictitious, and when the work first appeared it was ridiculed as such. After his death, the same feeling of incredulity prevailed, and he was personated (a la Munchausen) at masquerades by some wit or droll. Many learned men of past times have borne testimony to his character, and most of the substantial parts of his work have been authenticated by subsequent travellers. A most able and ample vindication of Marco Polo is in the English translation of his works by William Marsden, F.R.S., and especially in the exhaustive "Book of Ser Marco Polo," by Colonel Henry Yule, C.B.

Marco Polo, writing of the kingdom of Mutfili (Motupalle), tells us "how diamonds are got." Among the mountains, "there are certain great and deep valleys, to the bottom of which there is no access. Wherefore the men who go in search of the diamonds take with them pieces of flesh, as lean as they can get, and these they cast into the bottom of a valley. Now there are numbers of white eagles that haunt these mountains, and feed upon the serpents. When the eagles see the meat thrown down, they pounce upon it, and carry it up to some rocky hill-top, where they begin to rend it. But there are men on the watch, and as soon as they see that the eagles have settled, they raise a loud shouting to drive them away. And when the eagles are thus frightened away, the men recover the pieces of meat, and find them full of diamonds, which have stuck to the meat down at the bottom. For the abundance of diamonds down there in the depths of the valleys is astonishing, but nobody can get down, and if one could, it would be only to be incontinently devoured by the serpents which are so rife there.

"There is also another way of getting the diamonds. The people go to the nests of those white eagles, of which there are many, and in their droppings they find plenty of diamonds which the birds have swallowed in devouring the meat that was cast into the valleys. And when the eagles are taken, diamonds are found in their stomachs." "The strange legend related here," observes Colonel Yule, in his "Travels of Messer Marco Polo," "is very ancient and very widely diffused. Its earliest known occurrence is in the Treatise of St. Epiphanius, Bishop of Salamis in Cyprus, concerning the twelve jewels in the Rationale, or breastplate of the Hebrew high-priest, a work written before the end of the fourth century, wherein the tale is told of the jacinth. It is distinctly alluded to by Edrisi, who assigns its locality to the land of the Kirkhir (probably Khirghiz), in Upper Asia. It appears in Kazwini's 'Wonders of Creation,' and is assigned by him to the Valley of the Moon, among the mountains of Serendib. Sindbad the Sailor relates the story, as is well known, and his version is the closest of all to our author's. It is found in the Chinese Narrative of the Campaigns of Hulaku, translated by both Remusat and Pauthier. It is told in two different versions, once of the diamond and again of the jacinth of Serendib, in the work on Precious Stones by Ahmed Taifashi. Nicolo Conti relates it of a mountain called Albenigaras, fifteen days' journey in a northerly direction from Vijayanagar; and it is told again, apparently after Conti, by Julius Caesar Scaliger. It is related of diamonds and balasses in the old Genoese MS. called that of Usodimare. A feeble form of the tale is quoted contemptuously by Garcias from one Francisco de Tamarra; and Haxthausen found it a popular legend in Armenia."

Marco Barbaro, in his account of the Polo family, gives the following tradition:--"From ear to ear the story has passed till it reached mine, that when the three kinsmen arrived at their home, they were dressed in the most shabby and sordid manner, insomuch that the wife of one of them gave away to a beggar that came to the door one of those garments of his, all torn, patched, and dirty, as it was. The next day he asked his wife for that mantle of his, in order to put away the jewels that were sewn up in it; but she told him she had given it to a poor man, whom she did not know. Now, the stratagem that he employed to recover it was this. He went to the bridge of Rialto, and stood there turning a wheel, to no apparent purpose, but as if he were a madman, and to all those who crowded round to see what prank was this, and asked him why he did it, he answered, 'He'll come if God pleases.' So after two or three days he recognized his old coat on the back of one of those who came to stare at his mad proceeding, and got it back again. Then, indeed, he was judged to be quite the reverse of a madman! And from those jewels he built in the contrada of S. Giovanni Grisotomo a very fine palace for those days, and the family got among the vulgar the name of the Ca Million, because the report was that they had jewels to the value of a million of ducats; and the palace has kept that name to the present day--viz., 1566."

Ramusio, in his account of Marco Polo, gives, on traditional authority, a romantic story of the arrival of the Polos at Venice, laden with riches, but so changed in appearance and dress that they were not recognized. "They repaired to their own house, which was a noble palace, and found several of their relations still living in it, who, not knowing of their wealth, and probably considering them, from their coarse and common attire, poor adventurers returned to be a charge upon their families. The Polos, however, took an effectual mode of quickening the memories of their friends, and insuring a loving reception. They invited them all to a grand banquet. When their guests arrived, they received them richly dressed in garments of crimson satin of oriental fashion. When water had been served for the washing of hands, and the company summoned to table, the travellers, who had retired, appeared again in still richer robes of crimson damask. The first dresses were cut up and distributed among the servants, being of such length that they swept the ground, which was the mode in those days with dresses worn within doors. After the first course they again returned, and came in dressed in crimson velvet, the damask dresses being likewise given to the domestics; and the same was done at the end of the feast with their velvet robes, when they appeared in the Venetian dress of the day.

"The guests were lost in astonishment, and could not comprehend the meaning of this masquerade. Having dismissed their attendants, Marco Polo brought forth the coarse Tartar dresses in which they had arrived. Slashing them in several places with a knife, and ripping open the seams and the linings, there tumbled forth rubies, sapphires, emeralds, diamonds, and other precious stones, until the whole table glittered with inestimable wealth acquired from the munificence of the Grand Khan, and conveyed in this portable form through the perils of their long journey. The company were out of their wits with amazement, and now clearly perceived what they had first doubted, that these were in very truth those honoured gentlemen, the Polos, and accordingly paid them great respect and reverence.

"When the fame of this banquet and the wealth of the travellers became known throughout Venice, all the city, noble and simple, crowded to do honour to the extraordinary merit of the Polos. Marco was the hero of the day, and, as he always spoke of the wealth of the Grand Khan in round numbers, he was called Messer Marco Millioni."

Sir John Mandeville's account of "the Great Chan of Cathay, of the Royalty of his Palace, and how he sits at meat; and of the great number of officers that serve him," borders on the romantic and the incredible.

He prepares the reader, however, in his "Prologue" for what is in store for him. He says, "I, John Mandeville, Knight, albeit I be not worthy, who was born in England, in the town of Saint Albans, passed the sea in the year 1232, on the day of St. Michael; and hitherto have been a long time over the sea, and have seen and gone through many divers lands, and many provinces and kingdoms, and isles, and have passed through Tartary, Persia, Ermony (Armenia) the Little and the Great; through Libya, Chaldea, and a great part of Ethiopia; through Amazonia, India, the Less and the Greater, a great part; and throughout many other isles that are about India; where dwell many divers folks, and of divers manners and laws, and of divers shapes of men."

He describes the palace of the Great Chan at Caydon, and his "mountour" in the middle of it, "all wrought of gold, and of precious stones, and great pearls, and at the four corners are four serpents of gold; and all about there are made large nets of silk and gold, and great pearls hanging all about it...the hall of the palace is full nobly arrayed, and full marvellously attired on all parts, in all things that men apparel any hall with. And first, at the head of the hall is the emperor's throne very high, where he sits at meat. It is of fine precious stones, bordered all about with purified gold, and precious stones, and great pearls. And the steps up to the table are precious stones, mixed with gold. And at the left side of the emperor's seat is the seat of his first wife, one step lower than the emperor; and it is of jasper, bordered with gold and precious stones. And the seat of his second wife is lower than his first wife; and is also of jasper bordered with gold, as that other is. And the seat of the third wife is still lower, by a step, than the second wife; for he has always three wives with him wherever he is. And after his wives, on the same side, sit the ladies of his lineage, still lower, according to their ranks. And all those that are married, have a counterfeit, made like a man's foot, on their heads, a cubit long, all wrought with great, fine, and orient pearls...The emperor has his table, alone by himself, which is of gold and precious stones; or of crystal, bordered with gold, and full of precious stones; or of amethysts, or of lignum aloes, that comes out of paradise; or of ivory, bound and bordered with gold.

"At great feasts men bring before the emperor's table great tables of gold, and thereon are peacocks of gold, and many other kinds of different fowls, all of gold, and richly wrought and enamelled; and they make them dance and sing, clapping their wings together, and making great noise; and whether it be by craft or necromancy I know not, but it is a goodly sight to behold...Also above the emperor's table and the other tables, and above a great part of the hall is a vine, made of fine gold, which spreads all about the hall; and it has many clusters of grapes, some white, some green, some yellow, some red, and some black, all of precious stones: the white are of crystal, beryl, and iris; the yellow, of topazes; the red, of rubies, grenaz, and alabraundines; the green, of emerald, of perydoz, and of chrysolites; and the black, of onyx and garnets. And they are all so properly made that it appears a real vine bearing natural grapes...And all the vessels that men are served with, in the hall, or in chambers, are of precious stones, and especially at great tables, either of jasper, or of crystal, or of amethyst, or of fine gold. And the cups are of emeralds, sapphires, or topazes, of perydoz, and of many other precious stones.

"All the barons (of the Chan's court) have crowns of gold upon their heads, very noble and rich, full of precious stones, and great orient pearls...their robes are embroidered with gold all about, and dubbed full of precious stones and of great orient pearls, full richly...the four thousand barons are divided into four companies, and every thousand is clothed in cloths all of one colour, and so well arrayed, and so richly, that it is marvel to behold. The first thousand, which is of dukes, earls, marquises, and admirals, all in cloths of gold, with tissues of green silk, and bordered with gold, full of precious stones. The second thousand is all in cloths, diapered, of red silk, all wrought with gold, and the orfrayes set full of great pearls and precious stones, full nobly wrought. The third thousand is clothed in cloths of silk, of purple, or of India. And the fourth thousand is in clothes of yellow. And all their clothes are so richly and nobly wrought with gold and precious stones, and rich pearls, that if a man of this country had but one of their robes he might well say that he should never be poor. For the gold, and the precious stones, and the great orient pearls are of greater value on this side the sea than in those countries."

Sir John Mandeville describes the palace of the Emperor, Prester John, in the city of Susa, as "so rich and noble that no man can conceive it without seeing it. And above the chief tower of the palace are two round pommels of gold, in each of which are two large carbuncles, which shine bright in the night. And the principal gates of his palace are of the precious stones called sardonyx; and the border and bars are of ivory; and the windows of the hall and chambers are of crystal; and the tables on which men eat, some are of emerald, some of amethyst, and some of gold full of precious stones; and the pillars that support the tables are of the same precious stones. Of the steps approaching his throne where he sits at meat, one is of onyx, another crystal, another green jasper, another amethyst, another sardonyx, another carnelian, and the seventh, on which he sets his feet, is of chrysolite. All these steps are bordered with fine gold, with the other precious stones, set with great orient pearls. The sides of the seat of his throne are of emeralds, and bordered full nobly with gold, and dubbed with other precious stones and great pearls. All the pillars in his chamber are of fine gold with precious stones, and with many carbuncles, which give great light by night to all people..... The frame of his bed is of fine sapphires blended with gold to make him sleep well."

The descriptions given by old travellers of oriental luxury are very curious. In the account of Constantinople by Cornelius Haga, ambassador of the Netherlands in 1612 (Harleian Collection), he describes the state of the Grand Turk at that period. "He sat under a most rich and sumptuous cloth of state supported by four pillars of marble, somewhat elevated from the ground in manner of a bed, and serving for a seat, covered over with most rich and costly cloth of gold, which was set so full of diamonds, rubies, pearls, and other precious stones, that it showed like the sky bedecked with a multitude of stars. Before him there stood a standish of ink, beautified with many precious stones; all the chamber being hung about with most costly hangings, embroidered and embossed with gold," etc.

In the Harleian Collection is also" A true relation without all exception of Strange and Admirable Accidents which lately happened in the Kingdom of the Great Magor, or Mogul," 1622, in which we find " The Magor doth every year weigh himself in a balance made for that purpose, the scales of which are all of massive gold, richly beset with precious stones. First, he weigheth himself with weights of silver, next with weights of gold, and, lastly, with jewels and precious stones. His weight of silver and gold, he giveth away liberally at his pleasure; after he is weighed he mounteth unto his throne, and then he throweth amongst the standers by a great quantity of silver and gold, made hollow, like to the form of nutmegs, and such other spices, which his country doth afford. These ceremonies being ended, he beginneth to carouse and largely to drink with his nobles, till they all be drunk."