Historical Meanings and Superstitions of Symbols, Amulets, and Talismans

The original meaning of the swastika emblem has been variously explained as a symbol of fire, of the four cardinal points, of water, of the lightning, etc. Still another explanation is given by Hoernes, who inclines to the belief that it is simply a conventionalized representation of the human form, the lower shaft being the two legs joined together, the two horizontal shafts the outstretched arms, and the upper shaft the trunk of the body; the four projections would stand for the feet, the two hands and the head. (Hoernes, "Urgeschichte der bildonden Kunst," Vienna, 1898.)

The Egyptian crux ansata, the hieroglyphic symbol for "life," and the Phoenician Tau symbol, the "mark" that was to be stamped upon the foreheads of the faithful in Jerusalem (Ezek. ix, 4), and which in Early Christian art was frequently substituted for the usual cross, are both explained by Hoernes in a similar way, and he notes the fact that the swastika symbol does not appear in Egyptian or Phoenician art, drawing the inference that all three symbols originated in the same form or figure. (Hoernes, Urgeschichte der bildonden Kunst," Vienna, 1898.) To all these symbols were attributed talismanic virtues and they were frequently engraved on precious stones.

The so-called "Monogrammatic Cross" was very freely used in work of the fifth century. This is simply a modification of the monogram formed of the first two letters of the name Christ as written in Greek, a device which first appeared after the time of Constantine the Great (d. 337 A.D.). This monogram usually assumed the following form: P*, and the "Monogrammatic Cross" was made by changing the position of the Greek X (chi), and making one of its arms serve as the straight stroke of the P (r), thus giving the following form: P+.

A curious amulet to avert the spell of the Evil Eye is an engraved sard showing an eye in the centre, around which are grouped the attributes of the divinities presiding over the days of the week. Sunday, the dies Solis, is represented by a lion; Monday, the dies Lunae, by a stag; Tuesday, the dies Martis, by a scorpion; Wednesday, the dies Mercurii, by a dog; Thursday, the dies Jovis, by a thunderbolt; Friday, the dies Veneris, by a snake; and Saturday, the dies Saturni, by an owl. (King, "The Gnostics and their Remains," London, 1864.) In this way the wearer was protected at all times from the evil influence.

Because of its peculiar markings, some of which suggest the form of an eye, malachite was worn in some parts of Italy (e.g., in Bettona) as an amulet to protect the wearer from the spell of the Evil Eye. Such stones were called "peacock-stones," from their resemblance in color and marking to the peacock's tail. The form of these malachite amulets is usually triangular, and they were mounted in silver. It is curious to note, as a proof of the persistence of superstitions, that in an Etruscan tomb at Chiusi there was found a triangular, perforated piece of glass, each angle terminating in an eye formed of glass of various colors. (Catalogue de l'Exposition de la Societe d'Anthropologie (Exposition de 1900).)

On many of the amulets fabricated in Italy for protection against the dreaded jettatura, or spell of the Evil Eye, the cock is figured. His image was supposed in ancient times to assure the protection of the sun-god, and his crowing was regarded as an inarticulate hymn of praise to this deity. He was also a type of dauntless courage. All this contributed to make him a defender of the weak, especially of women and children, against the wiles of the spirits of darkness. (Elworthy, "The Evil Eye," London, 1895.) Rostand, in his "Chantecler," has enlarged this conception, and endows the cock with the proud conviction that it is to his matutinal chant alone that the world owes the daily recurrent phenomenon of the sunrise.

In Palestine the Evil Eye is supposed to be the baleful gift of men who have light-blue eyes, more especially if they are beardless. Possibly this is the power in which some of our blonde and beardless "mashers" repose their trust. As an antidote to the awful influence of these blue-eyed monsters, the Syrian women decorated themselves with blue beads, on the principle similia similibus curantur. A maiden with beautiful hair will tie a blue ribbon about it, or wear a blue bead in it, so as to ward off any evil spell cast by the blue eye that might rob her of her fair dower. (Stern, "Medizin, Aborglaube und Geschelechtsleben in der Turkei," Berlin, 1903.)

It is a well-known fact that many amulets were made in forms suggesting objects offensive to our sense of propriety. These were thought to protect the wearers by denoting the contempt they felt for the evil spirits leagued against them. Some such fancy may have induced the peculiar designs of certain of the jewels alleged to have been pawned in Paris by the ex-Sultan Abdul Hamid for the sum of 1,200,000 francs ($240,000). According to rumor, these pledges must be sold, as the sultan has failed to redeem them, but the designs are so risque that they cannot be offered at public sale; therefore the stones and pearls are to be removed and the gold settings are to be melted and sold as metal.

It is not exclusively characteristic of our commercial and industrial age that the price paid for a work of art should influence the popular estimation of the merits of the work, as appears in an anecdote related by Pliny. An emerald (smaragd), upon which was engraved a figure of Amymone (one of the Danaidae), having been offered for sale in the Isle of Cyprus, at the price of six golden denarii, Ismenias, a flute-player, gave orders to purchase it. The dealer, however, reduced the price and returned two denarii; upon which Ismenias remarked, "By Hercules! he has done me but a bad turn in this, for the merit of the stone has been greatly impaired by this reduction in price." (Plini, "Historia naturalis,".)

A variant of the design directed by Damigeron to be placed on the emerald is recommended in a thirteenth century manuscript, where we read that to fit this stone for use as a talisman, it should be engraved with the form of a scarab, beneath which there should appear a crested paroquet. (Archaeologia, London, 1844; MS. Harl. No. 80, folio 105, recto.) According to the same manuscript, a jasper should bear the figure of Mars fully armed, or else that of a virgin wearing a flowing robe and bearing a laurel branch. It should then be "consecrated with perpetual consecration." The mythical author Cethel asserts that the owner of a jasper engraved with the sacred symbol of the cross would be preserved from drowning. (Pitra, "Specilegium Solesmense," Parisiis, 1855.)

A curious quid pro quo appears in a fifteenth century treatise on gems written in French. Here, in a list of engraved gems suitable for use as amulets, we read, "If you find a dromedary engraved on a stone with hair flowing over its shoulders, this stone will bring peace and concord between man and wife." The original Latin text read, "If you find Andromeda on a stone with hair flowing over her shoulders, etc. (De Mely, in La Grande Encyclopedie, art. Pierres precieuses.) The translator's art which could turn Andromeda into a dromedary almost equalled that of the enchantress Circe.

A few even of the early writers were disposed to be sceptical as to the virtues ascribed to these engraved gems, and did not hesitate to assert that the Greek and Roman engravers executed their designs for ornamental purposes rather than to fit the gems for use as talismans. This was undoubtedly true in a large number of cases but nevertheless, as we have seen, many engraved talismans were really cut in the early centuries. As the art of gem engraving was not practised in the Middle Ages, some medieval writers suppose that the engraved talismanic gems current in their time were not works of art, but of nature, and Konrad von Megenberg accepting this view, gave it as his opinion that "God granted these stones their beauty and virtue for the help and comfort of the human race," adding that when he hoped to receive help from them he in no wise denied the grace of God. (Konrad von Megenberg, "Buch der Natur," Stuttgart, 1861.)

Damigeron writes of the sard that, if worn by a woman, it is a good and fortunate stone. It should be engraved with a design showing a grape-vine and ivy inter-twined. (Pitra, "Specilegium Solesmense," Parisiis, 1855.)

A celebrated topaz was that noted by George Agricola as being in the possession of a Neapolitan, Hadrianus Gulielmus. (Agricola, "De natura fossilum," lib. vi, Basileae, 1546.) It bore, in ancient Roman characters, the terse and pregnant inscription:

Natura deficit,

Fortuna mutatur.

Deus omnia cernit.

This was very freely rendered by Thomas Nicols as follows: (Nicols, "Faithful Lapidary," London, 1659.)

Nature by frailty doth dayly waste away.

Fortune is turn'd and changed every day.

In all, there is an eye know's no decay.

Jah sees for aye.

There is in the Imperial Academy at Moscow a turquoise two inches in diameter, inscribed with a text from the Koran in letters of gold. This turquoise was formerly worn by the Shah of Persia as an amulet, and it was valued at 5000 rubles by the jeweller from whose hands it came. (Kluge, "Edelsteinkunde," Leipsic, 1860.)